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Contents
1. Dr. William Hyde Wollaston
2. Benjamin Martin
3. Edward Nairne
4. George Adams
5. Nicolas Bion
6. Thomas Heath
7. Jonathan Sifson
8. Peter Dollond
9. Edmund Culpeper
10. Henry Nock
11. John Manton
12. Durs Egg
13. Joseph Egg
14. T.E. Mortimer
15. E. Remington
16. Smith & Wesson
17. Gastinne Renette
18. Manton & Co.
19. Charles Lancaster
20.
[Most Pictures, Trade Cards and Advertisments are reproduced here by permission from the British Museum.]
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1. Dr. William Hyde Wollaston
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Dr. William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828), Optical Scientist.
In 1812 William Hyde Wollaston introduced a much improved version of the earliest magnifiers consisting of a spherical glass by employing two hemispheres of glass mounted together with a small stop between them. Early examples were made where the stop was simply air space. Sir David Brewster found that Wollaston’s form worked best when the two lenses were hemispheres and the central space was filled up with a transparent cement having the same refractive index as the glass. He then innovated and used a sphere from a single piece of glass with a deep groove cut in it as the stop.(1) In 1829, Henry Coddington brought the Wollaston-Brewster lens into general usage, and further refined the design by modifying the shape of the groove, though Coddington laid no claim to being its inventor.(2) The central, deep groove at the equator limited the light rays to those close to the visual axis, which minimized spherical aberration. This lens was produced in numbers for mounting into a brass housing, from which a small handle was attached. It was a common accessory to microscopists and naturalists, and became known an the "Coddington Lens."
Bibliography:
1. L.C. Martin (1932) An Introduction To Applied Optics, Volume II, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd, London.
2. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coddington_magnifier]
3. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston]
Contributed by: David Kachensky
2. Benjamin Martin
Benjamin Martin (1704-1782), Instrument Designer, Manufacturer & Teacher
Benjamin Martin Advertisement
Benjamin Martin was born in 1705 in a village called Worplesdon, near Guildford in Surrey. Martin did not follow the path of apprentice like most respected instrument makers of the period, his Father’s prosperous background allowed Benjamin to become a merchant by the age of 24 but he largely worked in Chichester as a schoolmaster during the 1730’s up until his departure in 1742. To give a flavour of this enterprising man, he had by this time published eight books, invented a new form of microsope which he described in his “The Description and Use of a New Invented Pocket Reflecting Microscope” and lecturing widely on philosophy.
Martin lectured extensively across Southern England during this 1740’s and was responsible for numerous educational publications on science, mathematics and English grammar but in 1756, he established premises in Fleet Street, London, setting himself up as a scientific instrument maker whereafter his advertisements are recorded in London newspapers of the period.
Martin’s inventory grew throughout the 1760’s to include optics, globes, electrostatic machines and all types of philosophical instruments. His enthusiasm unbounded, he also tackled horology and planetariums in the early 1770’s. In 1772 responding to the Government’s concerns of the deterioration or counterfeiting of gold coinage, Martin devised his own solution which was followed up with a publication in 1773, “The Monied Mans Vade Mecum. Being an explanation of the nature, structure, and use of a new portable steelyard for weighing gold coin”. Ultimately it explained how to weigh coinage in a static fashion (to look for reducing of the gold coin by shaving) or by hydrostatic means where the coin being weighed in water, would reveal whether it had been plugged with another base metal and covered up.
Martin’s portable steelyard balance consisted of a six inch ivory beam with a weighted brass slider moving over a scale engraved for shillings and pence. It was hung by a silk chord at the centre and a pincer was provided at one end to hold a gold coin. A blue steel pointer was also provided at the fulcrum to ensure a level balance.
His business continued to flourish but in 1782, Benjamin Martin committed suicide owing to an impending bankruptcy. There is nothing recorded to suggest that the business was in turmoil but it is likely that his old age and increasing reliance on others was largely to blame. The sales of his steelyard balance alone would have been enough to keep him reasonably solvent. Known examples of this balance number up to the late 4000’s and according Gerard L’E Turner’s calculations, would have seen a revenue of £125 year.
Martin is an unlikely figure amongst most Eighteenth Century makers, his career reflects a proud man whose thirst for enlightenment and education of others was paramount across the numerous subjects he covered. His unexpected failure in his later years must have been a considerable blow. A sad ending to a highly repected teacher, instrument maker and publicist of the period who contributed greatly to his various subjects and interests. Bibliography: 1. Online database: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Martin_(lexicographer)]. 2. Gloria Clifton (1995). Diretory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6]. Contributed by: Jason Clarke
Martin lectured extensively across Southern England during this 1740’s and was responsible for numerous educational publications on science, mathematics and English grammar but in 1756, he established premises in Fleet Street, London, setting himself up as a scientific instrument maker whereafter his advertisements are recorded in London newspapers of the period.
Martin’s inventory grew throughout the 1760’s to include optics, globes, electrostatic machines and all types of philosophical instruments. His enthusiasm unbounded, he also tackled horology and planetariums in the early 1770’s. In 1772 responding to the Government’s concerns of the deterioration or counterfeiting of gold coinage, Martin devised his own solution which was followed up with a publication in 1773, “The Monied Mans Vade Mecum. Being an explanation of the nature, structure, and use of a new portable steelyard for weighing gold coin”. Ultimately it explained how to weigh coinage in a static fashion (to look for reducing of the gold coin by shaving) or by hydrostatic means where the coin being weighed in water, would reveal whether it had been plugged with another base metal and covered up.
Martin’s portable steelyard balance consisted of a six inch ivory beam with a weighted brass slider moving over a scale engraved for shillings and pence. It was hung by a silk chord at the centre and a pincer was provided at one end to hold a gold coin. A blue steel pointer was also provided at the fulcrum to ensure a level balance.
His business continued to flourish but in 1782, Benjamin Martin committed suicide owing to an impending bankruptcy. There is nothing recorded to suggest that the business was in turmoil but it is likely that his old age and increasing reliance on others was largely to blame. The sales of his steelyard balance alone would have been enough to keep him reasonably solvent. Known examples of this balance number up to the late 4000’s and according Gerard L’E Turner’s calculations, would have seen a revenue of £125 year.
Martin is an unlikely figure amongst most Eighteenth Century makers, his career reflects a proud man whose thirst for enlightenment and education of others was paramount across the numerous subjects he covered. His unexpected failure in his later years must have been a considerable blow. A sad ending to a highly repected teacher, instrument maker and publicist of the period who contributed greatly to his various subjects and interests. Bibliography: 1. Online database: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Martin_(lexicographer)]. 2. Gloria Clifton (1995). Diretory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6]. Contributed by: Jason Clarke
3. Edward Nairne
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Edward Nairne (1726-1806), Instrument Designer & Manufacturer. Shown Operating his Electrostatic Generator ca. 1787.
Edward Nairne Trade Card
Edward Nairne (b 1726, w 1749, d 1806) was a highly regarded mathematical instrument maker in 18th century London (1,2). He collaborated with and made instruments for contemporaries such as Benjamin Franklin and Joseph Priestly (The discoverer of oxygen.). Edward Nairne was apprenticed to Matthew Loft (1741/2) and completed his apprenticeship in 1748 to become free of the Spectaclemaker’s Guild. He had 11 apprentices of his own, including Jesse Ramsden, producing a full range of scientific instruments. He made improvements to the Cuff Microscope, building it into a portable case and calling it a chest microscope. Examples of his instruments, that have survived, can be found in major museum collections. A reflecting telescope by him can be found in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich (Inventory #AST0943). A refracting telescope (Inventory #70584) and a chest microscope (Inventory #37949) can be found at the Museum of The History of Science in Oxford. A reflecting telescope once owned by Samuel Williams (b 1743, d 1817), a Professor of Astronomy at Harvard (1780-1788) and made by Edward Nairne, is now in the Smithsonian. (The telescope was used by Professor Williams to observe the transit of Venus across the Sun in 1769 while in Bradford, Massachusetts.). In 1774, Edward Nairne formed a partnership with one of his apprentices, Thomas Blunt, and instruments produced by this pair bare the name Nairne & Blunt. The partnership lasted until 1793. Hence, instruments signed “Narine” can be dated pre-1774, i.e. 1749-1774. In 1776, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.
Bibliography:
1. Gloria Clifton (1995). Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6].
2. Online database: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Nairne].
Contributed by: David Kachensky
4. George Adams
George Adams Sr. (1704-1772) Trade Card
George Adams Sr. Advertisement
The Adams Family of Instrument Makers: The following is abstracted from John Millburn's book. John R. Millburn (2000) Adams of Fleet Street, Instrument Makers to King George III. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
George Adams, senior and his two sons, George, junior and Dudley, were prominent instrument makers in London for over 80 years. All three, in turn, held the post of Mathematical Instrument Maker to the King. All three wrote and published books on scientific subjects, especially scientific instruments. George (I) was born in London in 1709 and after his apprenticeship set up an instrument making business in 1734. He had five children by his first wife and nine more by his second. The East India Company purchased instruments from him and he was also the official supplier of instruments to the Ordnance Department. He sold a full range of scientific instruments including globes, orreries, microscopes, telescopes, sectors, quadrants, and ring dials, etc. To supply the demand he employed several apprentices including his son George (II).
In 1757 a disastrous fire destroyed most of the business but while it took the better part of a year, he was able to reestablish it. In addition to the instrument making business he authored works on microscopy (1746) and on globes (1766) among others. His Micrographia Illustrata secured a permanent place in the history of the microscope and many of his books went through multiple editions.
Not one to shirk his civic duties, Adams was also the senior churchwarden for St. Brides church. This was a much more important and responsible position than it appears as he had to manage funds equivalent to a half-million pounds per year for the caring of the poor, sick, and elderly of the parish.
In 1757 he became instrument maker for the Prince of Wales. When the prince ascended the throne as King George III in 1760, George Adams was appointed instrument maker to the king, a position he held until his death. Several of the instruments in the magnificent George III collection on display at the Science Museum in London were made by him.
When George (I) died in 1772 his wife Ann and son George (II) managed the business for a couple of years after which George (II) took it over. He, too, became official supplier of instruments to the Ordnance Department. This was a lucrative appointment since it came at the time of the American War of Independence. This created a need for a large number of instruments such as gunners quadrants, theodolites, sextants, compasses, telescopes, and others It was estimated that he needed at least ten workmen to supply the Ordnance Department orders alone. One of his apprentices was his 14-year-old brother Dudley.
George (II) made a wide range of instruments including optical, surveying, navigational, astronomical, meteorological, hydraulic, mechanical, electrical, magnetic and pneumatic instruments as well as instruments for drawing. He supplied a large order to Martinus van Marum of Haarlem in Holland. Most of these instruments are now on display at the Tyler Museum and are described in a 1973 book by Gerard L.’E. Turner.
Like his father, George (II) authored many books. His two-volume work Essays on the Microscope (1787) was dedicated to the king. The second volume consisted of a set of large and elaborate engraved plates showing microscopes, accessories, and specimens. His Astronomical and Geographical Essays (1789) ran through six editions in England and two in the United States. His successors continued to publish his books even after his death in 1795. His wife Hannah Adams ran the business for most of a year following his death, but in 1796 the remaining stock of instruments and tools was sold at auction.
Dudley Adams (1762-1830) did not take over his brother’s business, but instead set up his own shop at Charing Cross. He, too, obtained the Ordnance Department business and employed some twenty employees during the Napoleonic Wars. He had several patents including a type of spectacles that could be adjusted to fit the wearer. He made telescopes and in 1800 patented a method of making telescopic drawtubes rigid when extended. This made it possible to make telescopes as long as three feet with multiple draw tubes so that they could be folded down to a size to fit in the pocket.
or a while he did well in business and was able to purchase an estate in Nutting Grove, about 18 miles from London. However, the social upheaval following the war led to the bankruptcy of his business in 1817. That he was by then living beyond his means was undoubtedly a contributing factor. His assets, including the Nutting Grove estate, his furniture, tools, library, and stock were all sold in a series of auctions. Thus ended the continuity of the Adams family in the instrument business after over 80 years.
To earn a living, Dudley then went into medical applications of electricity and called himself a "Professional Medico-Electrician. In 1820 he wrote a book on the subject and treated patients although at that time most physicians were highly skeptical of the efficacy of treatments using electrical instruments. About that time Dudley’s mental and physical health began to deteriorate and he died in 1830. Bibliography: 1. John R. Millburn (2000) Adams of Fleet Street, Instrument Makers to King Geroge III. Aldershot Ashgate Publishing Ltd. 2. Clifton, Gloria (1995) Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6]. 3. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Adams]. Contributed by: John Millburn
George Adams, senior and his two sons, George, junior and Dudley, were prominent instrument makers in London for over 80 years. All three, in turn, held the post of Mathematical Instrument Maker to the King. All three wrote and published books on scientific subjects, especially scientific instruments. George (I) was born in London in 1709 and after his apprenticeship set up an instrument making business in 1734. He had five children by his first wife and nine more by his second. The East India Company purchased instruments from him and he was also the official supplier of instruments to the Ordnance Department. He sold a full range of scientific instruments including globes, orreries, microscopes, telescopes, sectors, quadrants, and ring dials, etc. To supply the demand he employed several apprentices including his son George (II).
In 1757 a disastrous fire destroyed most of the business but while it took the better part of a year, he was able to reestablish it. In addition to the instrument making business he authored works on microscopy (1746) and on globes (1766) among others. His Micrographia Illustrata secured a permanent place in the history of the microscope and many of his books went through multiple editions.
Not one to shirk his civic duties, Adams was also the senior churchwarden for St. Brides church. This was a much more important and responsible position than it appears as he had to manage funds equivalent to a half-million pounds per year for the caring of the poor, sick, and elderly of the parish.
In 1757 he became instrument maker for the Prince of Wales. When the prince ascended the throne as King George III in 1760, George Adams was appointed instrument maker to the king, a position he held until his death. Several of the instruments in the magnificent George III collection on display at the Science Museum in London were made by him.
When George (I) died in 1772 his wife Ann and son George (II) managed the business for a couple of years after which George (II) took it over. He, too, became official supplier of instruments to the Ordnance Department. This was a lucrative appointment since it came at the time of the American War of Independence. This created a need for a large number of instruments such as gunners quadrants, theodolites, sextants, compasses, telescopes, and others It was estimated that he needed at least ten workmen to supply the Ordnance Department orders alone. One of his apprentices was his 14-year-old brother Dudley.
George (II) made a wide range of instruments including optical, surveying, navigational, astronomical, meteorological, hydraulic, mechanical, electrical, magnetic and pneumatic instruments as well as instruments for drawing. He supplied a large order to Martinus van Marum of Haarlem in Holland. Most of these instruments are now on display at the Tyler Museum and are described in a 1973 book by Gerard L.’E. Turner.
Like his father, George (II) authored many books. His two-volume work Essays on the Microscope (1787) was dedicated to the king. The second volume consisted of a set of large and elaborate engraved plates showing microscopes, accessories, and specimens. His Astronomical and Geographical Essays (1789) ran through six editions in England and two in the United States. His successors continued to publish his books even after his death in 1795. His wife Hannah Adams ran the business for most of a year following his death, but in 1796 the remaining stock of instruments and tools was sold at auction.
Dudley Adams (1762-1830) did not take over his brother’s business, but instead set up his own shop at Charing Cross. He, too, obtained the Ordnance Department business and employed some twenty employees during the Napoleonic Wars. He had several patents including a type of spectacles that could be adjusted to fit the wearer. He made telescopes and in 1800 patented a method of making telescopic drawtubes rigid when extended. This made it possible to make telescopes as long as three feet with multiple draw tubes so that they could be folded down to a size to fit in the pocket.
or a while he did well in business and was able to purchase an estate in Nutting Grove, about 18 miles from London. However, the social upheaval following the war led to the bankruptcy of his business in 1817. That he was by then living beyond his means was undoubtedly a contributing factor. His assets, including the Nutting Grove estate, his furniture, tools, library, and stock were all sold in a series of auctions. Thus ended the continuity of the Adams family in the instrument business after over 80 years.
To earn a living, Dudley then went into medical applications of electricity and called himself a "Professional Medico-Electrician. In 1820 he wrote a book on the subject and treated patients although at that time most physicians were highly skeptical of the efficacy of treatments using electrical instruments. About that time Dudley’s mental and physical health began to deteriorate and he died in 1830. Bibliography: 1. John R. Millburn (2000) Adams of Fleet Street, Instrument Makers to King Geroge III. Aldershot Ashgate Publishing Ltd. 2. Clifton, Gloria (1995) Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6]. 3. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Adams]. Contributed by: John Millburn
5. Nicolas Bion
Nicolas Bion (1652-1733), Instrument Designer & Manufacturer
There are almost no biographical data available on Bion. His workshop was located on the Quai de l’Horloge in Paris, at the sign of the Quart de Cercle or of the Soleil d’or. This last sign may have been simply that of his printer-bookseller, Boudot. Bion had the title of king’s engineer for mathematical instruments, and his name was often mentioned in his time; however, very few of his instruments are extant and no important technical innovations can be attributed to him. Undoubtedly he was extremely clever and had excellent manufacturing facilities at his disposal. Less specialized than most of his colleagues, he seems to have made globes, sundials, mathematical instruments, and mechanical machines with equal accuracy.
Also unlike his colleagues, Bion published several works, and they as well as his instruments were probably responsible for his fame. Two pamphlets concern a sphere and globes executed for the dauphin and a celestial planisphere constructed to reflect the most recent observations made by the members of the Académie des Sciences. He also published three important treatises on globes and cosmography, on astrolabes, and on precision instruments in general. These writings had great success and went into many editions, the most recent of which were printed under the supervision of Bion’s son after his father’s death.
The Traité de la construction … des instruments mathématiques gives a fairly complete list of instruments normally constructed during the first quarter of the eighteenth century. It should, however, be noted that some of the instruments described by Bion—such as astrolabes, marine astrolabes, the jacob staff, and the Davis quadrant—were no longer used. There are deficiencies also in the descriptions of eyeglasses, microscopes, and micrometers. Bion apparently did not wish to have his instruments copied by others. All of his treatises were more for the user and the amateur than for the manufacturer.
The extant instruments are sundials of the Butterfield type, a pair of calipers, a proportional compass, an artillery calibrating compass, a theodolite, a graphometer, and a water level with pinnules of a special type.
Bibliography: 1. Bion’s writings are L’usage des globes célestes et terrestres et des sphères suivant les différents systèmes du monde, précédé d’un traité de cosmographie (Paris, 1699; 6th ed., 1751). 2. L’usage des astrolabes tant universels que particuliers accompagné d’un traité qui en explique la construction (Paris, 1702); Description de la sphere et des globes dédiés et présentés à Mgr. le Dauphin (Paris, 1704). 3. Description et usage du planisphère céleste nouvellement construit suivant les dernieres observations de Messieurs de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris, 1708). 4. Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des instruments de mathematiques (Paris, 1709; 5th ed., 1752).
Encyclopedia 1080Another work on Bion is Maurice Daumas, Les instruments scientifiques aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles(Paris, 1953), pp. 109–110. 5. [encyclopedia.com] 6. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_construction_and_principle _uses_of_mathematical_instruments].
Contributed by: Jacques Payen
Also unlike his colleagues, Bion published several works, and they as well as his instruments were probably responsible for his fame. Two pamphlets concern a sphere and globes executed for the dauphin and a celestial planisphere constructed to reflect the most recent observations made by the members of the Académie des Sciences. He also published three important treatises on globes and cosmography, on astrolabes, and on precision instruments in general. These writings had great success and went into many editions, the most recent of which were printed under the supervision of Bion’s son after his father’s death.
The Traité de la construction … des instruments mathématiques gives a fairly complete list of instruments normally constructed during the first quarter of the eighteenth century. It should, however, be noted that some of the instruments described by Bion—such as astrolabes, marine astrolabes, the jacob staff, and the Davis quadrant—were no longer used. There are deficiencies also in the descriptions of eyeglasses, microscopes, and micrometers. Bion apparently did not wish to have his instruments copied by others. All of his treatises were more for the user and the amateur than for the manufacturer.
The extant instruments are sundials of the Butterfield type, a pair of calipers, a proportional compass, an artillery calibrating compass, a theodolite, a graphometer, and a water level with pinnules of a special type.
Bibliography: 1. Bion’s writings are L’usage des globes célestes et terrestres et des sphères suivant les différents systèmes du monde, précédé d’un traité de cosmographie (Paris, 1699; 6th ed., 1751). 2. L’usage des astrolabes tant universels que particuliers accompagné d’un traité qui en explique la construction (Paris, 1702); Description de la sphere et des globes dédiés et présentés à Mgr. le Dauphin (Paris, 1704). 3. Description et usage du planisphère céleste nouvellement construit suivant les dernieres observations de Messieurs de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris, 1708). 4. Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des instruments de mathematiques (Paris, 1709; 5th ed., 1752).
Encyclopedia 1080Another work on Bion is Maurice Daumas, Les instruments scientifiques aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles(Paris, 1953), pp. 109–110. 5. [encyclopedia.com] 6. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_construction_and_principle _uses_of_mathematical_instruments].
Contributed by: Jacques Payen
6. Thomas Heath
Thomas Heath Advertisment
Thomas Heath Trade Card
Thomas Heath (1698-1773) was an important London scientific instrument maker working during the mid 18th century. He was recorded as working at the sign of “Hercules & Globe,” next to the Fountain Tavern in the Strand, London from 1720-1747, and then near the Exeter Exchange, in the Strand, from c.1750-1753. He apprenticed to Benjamin Scott in 1712 and was made free of the Grocers Guild in 1719-20. He had 11 apprentices of his own incuding George Adams Sr., John "1" Troughton, and Tyco Wing. He formed a partnership with Tyco Wing, one of his apprentices, and this partnership did business as Heath & Wing (1751-1773) (1).
He advertised on his trade cards and bill heads: "Globes, Spheres, Weather Glasses. All sorts of Mathamatical Inftruments in Silver, Brafs, Ivory or Wood according to the best improvements are accurately Made & Sold by Tho Heath at the Hercules & Globe next door to ye Fountain Tavern in the Strand, London. Also Mathametical books sold.” Illustrations on his trade cards include Ring Dials, Quadrants, and Back Staffs, as just some of the instruments he manufactured and sold. Bibliography: 1. Clifton, Gloria (1995) Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6] p. 131. 2. Thomas Heath's trade card is reproduced here by permission from the British Museum. Contributed by:
He advertised on his trade cards and bill heads: "Globes, Spheres, Weather Glasses. All sorts of Mathamatical Inftruments in Silver, Brafs, Ivory or Wood according to the best improvements are accurately Made & Sold by Tho Heath at the Hercules & Globe next door to ye Fountain Tavern in the Strand, London. Also Mathametical books sold.” Illustrations on his trade cards include Ring Dials, Quadrants, and Back Staffs, as just some of the instruments he manufactured and sold. Bibliography: 1. Clifton, Gloria (1995) Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6] p. 131. 2. Thomas Heath's trade card is reproduced here by permission from the British Museum. Contributed by:
7. Jonathan Sifson
Jonathan Sifson (1690-1747) Trade Card
Jonathan Sifson Advertisment
Bibliography:
1. Clifton, Gloria (1995) Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6] p. 253.
2.
Contributed by:
8. Peter Dollond
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Peter Dollond (1731-1820)
Peter Dollond Receipt
Peter Dollond Trade Card
Bibliography:
1. [ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Dollond].
2. Clifton, Gloria (1995) Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6] p. 87.
Contributed by:
9. Edmund Culpeper
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Edmund Culpeper (1660-1738) Trade Card
E. Culpeper Instruction Booklet
Bibliography:
1. Clifton, Gloria (1995) Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851; [ISBN 0 302 00634 6] p. 73.
2.
Contributed by: